Americans often express a great love of informality when using nicknames. These are shortened forms of their given name at birth and reflect the casual relationships which exist among friends and co-workers. Family names are hardly ever used in daily situations and the use of one’s father’s name is saved only for rare and formal occasions. In many traditional cultures the use of the family name is seen as a sign of respect. For Americans, however, it’s the nickname which creates an immediate intimacy between two people upon which to build a relationship. This love for nicknames can create a sense of closeness between people who are otherwise not related. Even the presidents of the United States have borne nicknames. Abraham Lincoln was known as ``Honest Abe``, Franklin Delano Roosevelt was simply called FDR, Eisenhower was referred to informally as Ike, President Ronald Reagan was affectionately called ``The Gripper``, and John F. Kennedy was known as Jack or JFK.

Not every nickname, however, is a compliment and some can be downright rude and insulting. If someone should demonstrate a certain negative characteristic, a label will soon be attached to describe that person in a non-flattering way. Likewise a person’s dominant physical traits may lead to nicknames that are not necessarily to one’s liking or choice.

1. Why do Americans use nicknames when addressing one another?

A. Nicknames are easier to remember.

B. Americans are formal people.

C. Nicknames help to create a casual atmosphere.

D. Nicknames are never to be used in daily life.

2. When do Americans prefer to use their family names?

A. when they are working C. while in formal situations

B. when writing a business letter D. when they are in trouble

3. Which American president was known as ``The Gripper``?

A. John F. Kennedy C. Ronald Reagan

B. Richard Nixon D. Franklin Roosevelt

4. In a traditional society, how could the use of one’s family name be described?

A. rude C. intimate

B. respectful D. informal

5. Which of the following is true?

A. All nicknames have a positive meaning.

B. All nicknames have a negative meaning.

C. Nicknames are never endearing.

D. Nicknames can have positive or negative meanings.

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When we want to buy something, we go to a shop. There are many kinds of shops in every town or city, but most of them have a food supermarket, a department store, men's and women's clothing stores, grocery, a bakery and a butchery.I like to do my shopping at big department stores and supermarkets. They sell various goods under one roof and this is very convenient. A department store, for example, true to its name, is composed of many departments: readymade clothes, fabrics, shoes, sports goods, toys, china and glass, electric appliances, cosmetics, linen, curtains, cameras, records, etc. You can buy everything you like there.There are also escalators in big stores which take customers to different floors. The things for sale are on the counters so that they can be easily seen. In the women's clothing department you can find dresses, costumes, blouses, skirts, coats, beautiful underwear and many other things. In the men's clothing department you can choose suits, trousers, overcoats, ties, etc.In the knitwear department one can buy sweaters, cardigans, short-sleeved and long-sleeved pullovers, woollen jackets. In the perfumery they sell face cream and powder, lipstick, lotions and shampoos.In a food supermarket we can also buy many different things at once: sausages, fish, sugar, macaroni, flour, cereals, tea. At the butcher's there is a wide choice of meat and poultry. At the bakery you buy brown and white bread, rolls, biscuits.Another shop we frequently go to is the greengrocery which is stocked by cabbage, potatoes, onions, cucumbers, carrots, beetroots, green peas and what not. Everything is sold here ready-weighed and packed. If you call round at a dairy you can buy milk, cream, cheese, butter and many other products.The methods of shopping may vary. It may be a selfservice shop where the customer goes from counter to counter selecting and putting into a basket what he wishes to buy. Then he takes the basket to the check-out counter, where the prices of the purchases are added up. If it is not a self-service shop, and most small shops are not, the shop-assistant helps the customer in finding what he wants. You pay money to the cashier and he gives you back the change. 

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